ramgarhia sikh surnames

Etymology The meaning of the surname Rehal is Palace. Like the people in the early 20th century who might have thought that Sikhs were all moving to Africa, there are people today who have come to the wrong conclusion based on a small part of the whole. Jassa Singh left Adina Beg, and made an appeal to Kaura Mall, the Diwan of Lahore and a Sahajdhari Sikh, to save the Sikhs from destruction. Adi Parashakti or Mahadevi, the supreme power, is called Durga Shakti as per Devi-Mahatmya. If you lived in British controlled Kenya in the earlier half of the 20th century, you might think that all Sikhs were moving to Africa! [3][4], Ramgarhias traditionally mostly carpenters but included other artisan occupations such as stonemasons and blacksmiths. It goes like this, if you work in your garden, then you are jatt, and if you work with wood, then you are carpenter/tarkhan. There is little information on Ramgariha Sikhs among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate. Mahatams were originally Hindus, though some also professed to Islam. In 1720's Zakaria Khan decided to make peace with the Sikhs and offered territory and the title of Nawab for their leader. The Gurdwara is a place for acquiring a spiritual knowledge and wisdom. Live: 'Biden's Ukraine trip has sent message of enduring support', T20 WC Live: Rain stops play; Ireland 54/2 in 8.2 overs, How free power is draining Punjab's coffers, Not just economy: How Pak is also floundering on terror, Turkey-Syria live: India always ready to be first-responder, says PM, Actress and dancer Bela Bose passes away at the age of 79, Terms of Use and Grievance Redressal Policy. MANGAL SINGH RAMGARHIA (1800-1879), manager of the Golden Temple at Amritsar for 17 years from 1862 till his death in 1879, was the son of Divan Singh Ramgarhia, a nephew of the famous Sardar Jassa Singh Ramgarhia. The Ramgarhia are a community of Sikhs from the Punjab region of northwestern India, encompassing members of the Tarkhan and lohar subgroups Values for %Christian Adherent and %Evangelical (which determine unreached status) are often informed estimates, some more accurate than others. Jassa Singh Ramgarhia was 5 years old when Banda Singh Bahadur attained martyrdom at Delhi. In the hills Kangra, Nurpur, Mandi and Chamba paid him a tribute of two lakh of rupees. Lally is also a Punjabi surname for the people belonging to various Punjab villages like Lallian Kalan Village near Lambran in Jalandhar. It progresses toward becoming inconvenience free for individuals to perceive an individuals standing from their surname. Caste system was nothing but categories made on the bases of work/professions. After embracing Sikhism, they differentiated themselves from their Hindu counterparts. The Sikhs sent Jassa Singh Ramgarhia as their envoy to Adina Beg in 1740 when he was only 17 years of age. The popularity of Mazhabis and Ranghretas in the Sikh religion has been established by a rhymeRanghrete Guru ke Bete(the Ranghretas are the sons of the Guru), attributed to them on account of the valorous act of bringing the severed head of ninth Guruof Sikhism, GuruTeghBahadur,from Delhi to Anandpur Sahib by the legendary Bhai Jaita, a Ranghreta. A conflict between Jai Singh Kanhaiya and Jassa Singh Ramgarhia developed and the Bhangi Misl sardars also developed differences with Jai Singh Kanhaiya. The Sikhs gathered at Amritsar on the occasion of Diwali in 1748 A.D. He was among the crop of those Sikhs who fought against all odds for survival of their newly founded religion and stood up to the evil Zakaria Khan. They were primarily Hindus prior to their conversion to Sikhism. Media related to Jassa Singh Ramgarhia at Wikimedia Commons. Monarchs Which is the most common Jatt surname in Punjabi? WebMatharus were fierce warriors especially during, the time when the Matharu tribe, had converted to Sikhism; they fought numbers of wars for Guru Gobind Singh, Banda Singh Bahadur and Jassa Singh Ramgarhia. During his younger days, Mangal Singh remained in attendance on Maharaja Ranjit Singh who gave But the Sikhs could not enjoy favours from Mir Mannu for long. WebBal is an sikh and muslim jat family. The curious case of KL Rahul: Talent or favouritism? In Punjab both Saini and Jatt are land owner farmers. Pasted as rich text. Saini is a warrior caste, Jatt is not a caste its a farming or agricultural community. 299 Its variants include Lalli and Lali. Your link has been automatically embedded. For them Sansi, Chamar and Mazhabi Dalit Sikhs are of the same the lowest rank. Leave comments and ask questions related to the Rehal family. They would be able to live in peace in Jallandhar Doab, particularly when Zakaria Khan was murdering them in thousands everyday in Bari Doab. Jassa Singh Ramgarhia along with other Sikh sardars, fought many a pitched battle against the Afghan invader, Ahmad Shah Durrani. WebRamgarhia Sikh Heritage/Ramgarhia Famous Sikh Personalities/Ramgarhia History/Famous Sikh Tarkhans/Lohars Meaning of Rehal : Kingdom, Palace p. 119. http://sikhchic.com/article-detail.php?id=2532&cat=14, "Equestrian statue of Jassa Singh Ramgarhia in Amritsar, Punjab India", https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jassa_Singh_Ramgarhia&oldid=1141149842, Articles with incomplete citations from August 2021, Short description is different from Wikidata, All Wikipedia articles written in Indian English, Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from January 2014, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0, "The heritage of the Sikhs" by Harbans Singh. The Gurdwara plays a socio-economic role in the Sikh community. Jassa Singh died on 20 April 1803 at the age of 80. Son of Giani Bhagwan Singh These often reflect the profession or caste of the family. Views are personal. 14. The mud-fortress was besieged and skirmishes continued for four months in which two hundred Sikhs lost their lives. The local rajas sought safety in submission and Jassa Singh collected a tribute of 200,000 rupees from the Kangra states. This answer is: Study guides. The Census of 1881 and 1931 recorded various castes within the Sikh community, including Aroras, Ahluwalias, Bhattras, Chhimbas, Jats, Jheers, Khatris, Kambohs, Labanas, Lohars, Mahatam, Mazhabis, Nais, Ramgarhias, Ramdasias, Ranghretas, and Sainis. Ramgarhia had good relationship with Bhangi Dhillon & Phulkia Sidhu Misl. Ramgarhia also had good relationship with Ahluwalia and Sansi Sukerchakiy Now Sikhs only levied "Dasvand", that is 10% of their income; this was used to support the Dal Khalsa and provide protection to the people against all oppressors. Where does the last name Jandu come from? We use cookies to ensure that we give you the best experience on our website. He joined forces with Adina Beg, who appointed him a risaldar (commander), but switche Beg's siege and, in 1752, rebuilt the damaged fort. Punjab's many Dalit Sikhs Ramdasia, Ravidasia, Mazhabis, Ranghretas, Rai, Sansi, Jadeja to Swamy to Sikka, Indian celebs flaunting caste identities normalise inequalities, How MP Excise Act systemically targets SC, ST, Vimukta communities. There were nine hundred Sikhs in it, under Jassa Singh's command. Young Jassa Singh then joined the jatha of Nand Singh Sahghania and learnt the art of warfare at an early age. Being a Jatt is not at odds with Sikhism because they are not superior to anybody inherently. The meaning of the surname Rehal is Palace. WebJassa Singh Ramgarhia was born into a Sikh family with surname Sagoo in 1723. It has the Sri Guru Granth Sahib Ji, Amrit Kirtan Gutka, Bhai Gurdaas Vaaran, Sri Dasam Granth Sahib and Kabit Bhai Gurdas. According to Skanda Purana, the goddess Parvati accounted the name "Durga" after she killed the demon Durgamaasura. At the height of his power, Jassd Singh's territory in the Bari Doab included Batala, Kaldnaur, Dinanagar, Sri Hargobindpur, Shahpur Kandi, Gurdaspur, Qadian, Ghuman, Matteval, and in the Jalandhar Doab, Urmur Tanda, Sarih, Miani, Garhdivala and Zahura. Joshua Project makes every effort to ensure that the subject in an image is in fact from the specific people group. That is because untold numbers of Ramgarhia Sikhs were sent from the Punjab to Africa in the late 1800s to help the British construct railroads. Dress modestly when attending the Gurdwara. 209 birth records, View Although Ramdasias and Ravidasias originated from Chamars, the former consider themselves superior to the latter. Mir Mannu became the new governor of Lahore and Multan on the 9th April 1748 A.D. In great need of spiritual renewal and commitment to biblical faith. The surname Rehal belongs to the high Khatri caste. are not permitted on the Gurdwara premises. Sikh Surnames . Clans . These often reflect the profession or caste of the family. There are two broad categories: Jat (jut) and Khat(t)ri (kh schwa t r long e). Jats are historically land-owners, farmers or warriors. Khatris are historically merchants or, less commonly, warriors. Later this group of Sikh leaders created Misals and two factions of Sikhs called Budha Dal and Taruna Dal. Jassa Singh Ahluwalia fearlessly stood like a mountain in the center close by him was Jassa Singh Thokah, looking like a lion in stature, the Qazi says that Ramgarhia has his own flag and war drum[11], In 1767, Ahmad Shah Durrani Invaded India for the eight time, while Ahamed Shah was crossing the river Beas, his passage was obstructed by Jassa Singh Ahluwalia and Jassa Singh Ramgarhia, a fierce contest took place in which Ahluwalia was severely wounded. Jassa Singh performed his task so well that Adina Beg became highly impressed with his statesmanship and wisdom and offered him a major position in his army with a jagir to cover his expenses. The Ramgarhia Misl as well as the other Misls were a huge contributing factor to the creation of the Khalsa Empire under Maharaja Ranjit Singh. Russian surnames are mostly Although someone with the last name Khatter, a derivative of Khatri, could be part of the Arora clan, this does not necessarily form part of the legal name. His grandfather, Hardas Singh (D. 1716) had received pahul, the vows of the Khalsa, at the hands of Guru Gobind Singh and had fought in the campaigns of Banda Singh Bahadur. This is especially prevalent in the Shakta denomination within Hinduism, which worships the Goddess Devi in all her manifestations. Basically they will found from bal kalan tehsil verka 5 District Sri Amritsar Punjab India. Khatris are historically merchants or, less commonly, warriors. Adi Parashakti or Devi Durga is a Hindu concept of the Ultimate Shakti or Mahashakti, the ultimate power inherent in all Creation. Where does the last name Janda come from? Ramgarhia Castes (Gotras) List A Anuja Anwal Arab Arar Asar Asra Assoun Athangal Atwal () Aujla () Aulakh () B Babbar Bachhal Badah Badanah Pg 276 hari ram gupta, Warrior-diplomat: Jassa Singh Ramgarhia - Harbans Singh Virdi. As they took up farming, they and the original Jatt communities often merged, so it is often neccessary to go back to these times to truly find the origin of the family. He became the Misldar of the Ramgarhia Misl ( army ). They are locally known as Tarkhan (Carpenter) because they are master of wood work in Punjab. Soon a body of 30,000 horse and foot under him and Karam Singh crossed into Saharanpur district, ravaging it freely. Here all men, women and children are treated as equal. However, in terms of social status, Sansi Sikhsare considered lower than the Mazhabis. Jassa Singh Ramgarhia and Jassa Singh Ahluvalia became sworn enemies of each other. You can post now and register later. Polish family names originated in the 17th century generally finish with ski or witz or ska. As many Jewish families originated in bordering He built a fort at Talvara on the left bank of the Beds and stationed his brother, Mali Singh, with 4,000 horse, in the fort. Their nomadic lifestyle Sansis were primarily hunters and shepherds is considered the main cause of their social exclusion, backwardness, degradation to a lower caste. "The Other Sikhs: Bridging Their Diaspora", https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ramgarhia&oldid=1142670192, All Wikipedia articles written in Indian English, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0, This page was last edited on 3 March 2023, at 19:20. Our gurus said..sikh di koi jaat nahi, jis di jaat hai oh sikh nahi..on one side we said that we all follow guru granth sahib but on other side we believe in such stupid beliefs. The large size of Jassa Singh's territory aroused the jealousy of the other Sikh Misls. The name Rehal signifies King's residency, as it is derived from Sanskrit (Raj Mahal), meaning King's palace. What Can You Learn About Your Forebears From The Meaning Of Surnames. Best Answer. The Rehal families celebrate all the festivals related to the Great Devi Durga. However, in official records, they are still bracketed with Chamars, and counted as Hindus in the census records just like them. Kshatriyas are known as Khatris in Punjab at present time.Traditionally, the kshatriya constituted the ruling and military elite. She was married either with Brahma and Vishnu. Father of Jodh Singh Ramgharia and Baba Veer Singh Alphabetical surname index . Lord Rama, Seventh avatar of God Vishnu and the king of Ayodhya. You cannot paste images directly. The noble Rehal families are the descendants of the King Rehal. It is associated with the Jatt Sikhs. Durga (Hindustani pronunciation: [dura]; Sanskrit: ), meaning "the inaccessible" or "the invincible", is the most popular incarnation of Devi and one of the main forms of the Goddess Shakti in the Hindu pantheon. Etymology The name Rehal signifies King's residency, as it is derived from Sanskrit (Raj Mahal), meaning King's palace. Sansi Sikhs are nomadic gypsies, and are divided into two main clans named after two mythical ancestors,MahalaandBeehdoo. We welcome. Scripture Prayers for the Ramgarhia in India. In 1775, Jassa Singh Ahluwalia one day was going to Achal near Batala, he was attacked by Jassa Singh Ramgarhia brothers Khushal singh, Tara singh, and Mali singh, Jassa Singh Ahluwalia was taken prisoner, Jassa Singh Ramgarhia apologized for the misbehaviour of his brothers and honorably returned Ahluwalia with gifts but, the differences between two increased, Jassa Singh Ahluwalia took the oath, He will drive Ramgarhias out of country[13], In 1778, Jai Singh Kanhaiya and Haqiqat Singh Kanhaiya supported by Jassa Singh Ahluwalia attacked him and exiled him to the desert of Hansi and Hisar, he set up his headquarters at Tosham[12], In March 1783, he come to know that Dal Khalsa under Jassa Singh Ahluwalia was advancing upon Delhi, he joined it at March 10, 1783, On 11 March, Dal Khalsa entered in the royal palaces in the red fort, In the Diwan-e- Am Sikh Jassa Singh Ahluwalia was placed on the throne of Delhi as Badshah Singh of Delhi by Sikhs, Through Ramgarhia was in minority, yet he challenged the Ahluwalia and called upon him to get down immediately. Because Jatt is not a caste? The Ramgarhia-Kanhaiya cleavage over their adjoining territories in the districts of Gurdaspur and Hoshiarpur widened. How do plate tectonics explain why earthquakes and volcanoes occur? true dat, i don't pay any attention to such crap. Eleven of these formed the core of the caste constituency Jat and Kamboh (agrarian); Khatri and Arora (mercantile); Tarkhan, Lohar, Nai, and Chhimba (artisan); Kalal (distiller); and Chamar and Chuhra (outcaste Dalits). In terms of social status, the Mazhabi, Ranghreta, Ramdasia, Ravidasia, Rai, and Sansi Sikhs far from being bracketed with the topmost castes, i.e., Jat, Khatri, and Arora Sikhs are categorised to be lower than Ramgarhia and Ahluwalia Sikhs. Jassa Singh was born in 1723 in the village of Ichogil, son of Giani Bhagwan Singh whose father S. Hardas Singh had been baptised by the 10th Guru, Guru Gobind Singh Himself. The Sikh scriptures are recited or sung and sermons are delivered. Jassa Singh was assigned to this task and he, with the help of his contingent, reconstructed the fortress and named it Ramgarh. Brother of Baba Jai Singh; Baba Khush Haal ; Baba Maali Singh and Baba Tara Singh. [5][8] The lessons learned in Punjab, where they had established a few gurdwaras to aid community cohesion and had been loyal to the British and generally unwilling to support the Jat-led Akali movement, assisted their improved status in Assam. The community was formed with only five families and originally met every Sunday in the homes of members. Claiming that Jatts are superior is stupid and is like saying Italians are superior to French. Sikhism Believes that all are Equal before GOD irrespective of caste , creed, social or financial status or gender .Gurus denounced Caste system pr of 39 people with the last name Rehal But many Ravidasias do not consider themselves part of either Hinduism or Sikhism but a separate religion altogether Ravidasia Dharm. Are there famous people from the Rehal family? The Reference section includes Mahankosh, Guru Granth Kosh,and exegesis like Faridkot Teeka, Guru Granth Darpan . A History of the Sikhs states that Ram Singh, a Ramgarhia Sikh born in 1816 in the village of Bhaini, Ludhiana district, introduced changes to Sikhism that separated his followers from other Sikhs (1966, 128).Singh's followers came to be known Ramgariya is not a caste but Tarkhan is a caste, ppl use "Ramgariya" because Jassa Singh "Ramgariya" established his misl and he was from the same "Tarkhan" caste. We recommend against using %Christian Adherent and %Evangelical to calculate absolute numbers. The Ultimate GODDESS: DEVI DURGA - The Kuldevi of Rehals. Joshua Project occasionally adjusts profile text from third party sources. Jassa Single and Jai Singh made numerous sallies killing a large number of the besiegers, but were ultimately forced to evacuate. As per Sikhism there is no caste/race or cult. Jai Singh Kanhaiya and Mahan Singh Sukkarchakkia fell out. Discover Rehal family photos shared by the community. What's the difference between a Rhamgharia & Jatt? The Jandu surname derives from the Ramgarhia group from North India, Punjab. Rope-makingwas theirtraditional occupation, though they were notorious for illicit liquor trade. Thereafter, all Sikh places of worship came to be known as gurdwaras. Jai Singh was defeated and his son Gurbakhsh Singh killed. Copyright 2023 Bennett, Coleman & Co. Ltd. All rights reserved. they will few found in Pakistan and India Punjab. A History of the Sikh Misals. Chauhan Jats are descendents of ancient time but jat chauhan become rajput after nount abu yagy. The Sikhs emerged stronger as a result of these trials and in a few years had defeated all Mughal forces between area of River Jamuna and River Indus. That is because untold numbers of Ramgarhia Sikhs were sent from the Punjab to Africa in the late 1800s to help the British construct railroads. If you have an account, sign in now to post with your account. (an epithet of the god Shiva). By the way, is there any tension or hatred between the two, and how are the split into different types of Sikhs - what are their beliefs? Over time, they managed to maintain a distinct sense of identity and culture despite major persecution by invading Arabs, Rajputs and Hindu elite. The author would like to clarify that caste names have been used for academic purposes, not with any malafide intentions. They also performed the function of hereditarygenealogists to the dominant Jat caste, and in return received some grain at each harvest. [10], In 1765, Ahmad Shah Durrani invaded India for seventh time in the winter of 17641765, During this campaign he constantly harassed by Sikhs, Qazi Nur Muhammad who was present in the Afghan army describes the numbers of engagements between Sikhs and Afghans, a battle was fought on the western bank of the Satluj opposite Rupar, it was morning and the Afghan army was hardly gone 3km from the western bank of the Satluj, when they attacked by the Sikhs, The Afghans immediately stopped marching and got into regular formation of battle, Ahmad Shah Durrani was in the center with 6,000 choice soldiers, Shah Vali Khan, Jahan Khan, Shah Pasand Khan, Anzala Khan and others at the head of 12,000 troops were on the right Nasir Khan with 12,000 Baluchis was on the left, The Dal Khalsa also organised themselves in regular battle army They themselves disregard the egalitarian tenets of the Sikhism, and further subdivide themselves along caste lines: Marriage is within community boundaries, and Ramdasia and Ravidasia Sikhs consider themselves superior to the Mazhabi and Ranghreta Sikhs. After Adina Beg's death in September 1758, the roving bands of the Sikhs returned. Ramgarhia means "those who construct forts." Dalit Sikhs oftenlamentthat theyremainperipheral to structures of power even in Punjab, which is the only Sikh-majority state in the Indian Union, but the recentelevation of Charanjit Singh Channi a Ramdasia Sikh to the post of ChiefMinister, and thus the first ever Dalit CM of Punjab, has dramaticallypropelled the issues and political identity of Dalit Sikhsto the centre stage ofcontemporary Punjab politics. The Ramgarhia are a community of Sikhs from the Punjab region of northwestern India, encompassing members of the Lohar and Tarkhan subgroups of jatt sikhs. Singha, Bhagata (1993). WebThe Sikh community in Kansas City dates from the 1960s. The Ramgarhia Mislderives its name from this place which literally means Custodians of the Castle of God. SearchGurbani brings to you a unique and comprehensive approach to explore and experience the word of God. He sent a strong force under Mir 'Aziz Bakhshi to clear the forests in which Sikhs had taken shelter. One segment of Dalit Sikhs consists of Ravidasias (leather workers), and Ramdasias (weavers). |Ethnicity of Rehal : Punjab. During these times it was only the Jatt community that held a surname and most often the surname was the village to which they belonged . Whether you live in India or overseas, you can take a paid subscription by clicking here. Rai Sikhs are members of the Mahatam ethnic group. Pray for the Lord to make agencies aware of the Ramgarhias. Patiala, India: Publication Bureau, Punjabi University. In the Punjabi language, "garh" means "stronghold" or "fort." Those people, says Singh, have "captured the control of Sikh socio-religious institutions and political parties." Ramgarhia surnames are primarily based on the caste of the people who either lived in the area or came to the area. To become a member of the Ramga Their role was to protect society by fighting in wartime and governing in peacetime. Map geography: UNESCO / GMI. Durga is the original manifested form of Mother Adi-Parashakti. The Sikh community in Kansas City dates from the 1960s. The Sikhs were greatly annoyed at the conduct of their envoy, but Jassa Singh did not remain with Adina Beg for long. What's the difference between a Rhamgharia & Jatt? India needs fair, non-hyphenated and questioning journalism, packed with on-ground reporting. It is open to every one regardless of age, sex, caste, or creed. Associations representing the less influential but numerically superior people have formed in reaction to this, including Ramgarhia groups that are running their own educational and socio-religious institutions as well as mobilising their diaspora and any prominent individuals who might assist in enhancing their identity. Thus, she is considered the supreme goddess and primary deity in Shaktism, occupying a place similar to Lord Krishna in Vaishnavism. You can add any HTML including images, paragraphs and lists. The Kul Devi of the royal Rehal families is Devi Durga. As well as sermons and the singing of the scriptures, the congregation is expected to participate in the ceremonies of birth, baptism, marriage, death and celebration of festivals. As with the Rai Sikhs, the British government had condemned them as robbers and thieves, and declared them a Notified Criminal Tribe. It is expected to be free from any sectional interests or party politics. Twenty years Earlier Banda Bahadur had abolished all taxes and the Zamindari system. Those members who were mainly from Jassa Singh Ramgarhia died in 1803 at the age of 80 After the death of Jassa Singh Ahluvalia in October 1783, there were further fissures in the Dal Khalsa. Jassa Singh Ramgarhia (17231803) was a prominent Sikh leader during the period of the Sikh Confederacy. WebRamgarhias - Gotras Gurus Our Gurus About Lord Vishavkarma Lord Vishavkarma's Aarty Lord Vishavkarma's Ardas Gems Bhai Lallo Ji M Jassa Singh Ji Ramgarhia Satguru Ram Singh Ji Baba Nand Singh Ji Matrimonial Looking for Ramgarhia Boy Looking for Ramgarhia Girl Post Your Match Organizations Organizations India Organizations Abroad Ravidasias are very particular about their distinct faith and often assert their separate Dalit identity. Five hundred Singhs took shelter in fort of Ram Rauni and the rest moved to forests. youth completely denies caste system..but still caste system is prevalent in india and mostly among sikh religion. [6] There is agreement among the sources that he was of Tarkhan[7] origin and was originally named Jassa Singh Thokar (Jassa Singh the Carpenter). [10] However, Joginder Singh says that they still lack influence in the Punjab, which is a region heavily dependent on agriculture and dominated by some influential peasant farmers, mostly Jat but also some from communities such as the Labanas and Sainis. In the battle of Dinanagar in 1775, Jassa Singh Ramgarhia joined the Bhangi sardars against the forces of the Kanhaiyas and the Originally called Thoka, meaning carpenter, the Ramgarhia are named after Jassa Singh Ramgarhia, whose birth surname of Thoka became Ramgarhia in the 18th century when he was put in charge of rebuilding of what became known as Ramgarhia Bunga, at Ramrauni, near Amritsar. Babu Kanshi Ram, the founder of the Bahujan Samaj Party, was a clean-shaven Ramdasia Sikh who belonged to Punjabs Ropar district. Aujla (), a tribe of Jats descended from their eponym a Hajual Bhati Rajput and found in Sialkot : also found in Montgomery where they are Muhammadans and classed as agricultural.

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